RHESSI's Tenth Anniversary

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===Discovery of Gamma-ray Footpoint Structures===
===Discovery of Gamma-ray Footpoint Structures===
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RHESSI has made detailed images of gamma-rays emitted by solar flares.
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RHESSI has made detailed images of gamma-rays emitted by solar flares. This had never been done before, and it showed that the gamma-ray sources tend to have a double-footpoint structure as do hard X-rays, but (significantly) at different locations (Hurford et al. 2003, 2006). Smith et al. (2003) were also able to show, from the Doppler shift of several gamma-ray lines, that the magnetic field lines down which the emitting ions were traveling had to be tilted from the vertical at an angle of some 30 to 40 degrees. This result combined with the detection of gamma-ray footpoint emission  
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This had never been done before, and it showed that the gamma-ray  
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shows clearly that the ions must have been accelerated over a relatively small volume in the corona, in the primary flare energy source, rather than over a broad area at a shock front propagating far from the flare.
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sources tend to have a double-footpoint structure as do hard X-rays,
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but (significantly) at different locations (Hurford et al. 2003, 2006).
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Smith et al. (2003) were also able to show, from the Doppler shift of
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several gamma-ray lines, that the magnetic field lines down which
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the emitting ions were traveling had to be tilted from the vertical
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at an angle of some 30 to 40 degrees.  
+
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This result combined with the detection of gamma-ray footpoint emission  
+
-
shows clearly that the
+
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ions must have been accelerated over a relatively small volume in
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the corona, in the primary flare energy source, rather
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than over a broad area at a shock front propagating far from the
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flare.
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Hurford, G. J., Schwartz, R. A., Krucker, S., Lin, R. P., Smith, D. M., &
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'''Related Papers'''
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Vilmer, N. 2003, "First Gamma-Ray Images of a Solar Flare," ApJ, 595, L77.
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Hurford et al. 2006, "Gamma-Ray Imaging of the 2003 October/November Solar Flares," ApJ, 644: L93–L96.
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* ''First Gamma-Ray Images of a Solar Flare'' - [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ApJ...595L..77H Hurford et al. 2003]
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Smith et al., 2003, High-resolution Spectroscopy of Gamma-ray Lines from the X-class Solar Flare of 2003 July 23, ApJ., 595, L81.
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* ''Gamma-Ray Imaging of the 2003 October/November Solar Flares" - [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ApJ...644L..93H Hurford et al. 2006]
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* ''High-resolution Spectroscopy of Gamma-ray Lines from the X-class Solar Flare of 2003 July 23'' [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ApJ...595L..81S Smith et al. 2003]
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Revision as of 22:57, 9 February 2012

Contents

RHESSI's Scientific Legacy

February 5, 2012, marks the 10the anniversary of RHESSI's launch. At this time, it seems appropriate to review the scientific achievements to date, and we present here a top-ten list of the iconic results that we believe will constitute RHESSI's scientific legacy. A much more comprehensive review of RHESSI's scientific achievements can be found in the recently published Space Science Review (Vol. 159, Issue 1-4) - High-Energy Aspects of Solar Flares.

It is important to remember that RHESSI combine both X-ray and gamma-ray imaging spectroscopy in a single instrument with the stated goal of investigating particle acceleration and energy release in solar flares. The top-ten list includes items, in priority order, that show RHESSI's unique contributions in this area of flare research.

Any list of RHESSI's scientific accomplishments would be incomplete without acknowledging the importance of RHESSI's serendipitous contributions to other aspects of solar physics (oblateness), to astrophysics (magnetars), and to Earth sciences (terrestrial gamma-ray flashes). Thus, three additional items are included at the end in those areas of research.

Top-ten Flare-related Items

Figure: Overlay of gamma-ray and X-ray contours on TRACE image of the 2003 October 28 flare.

Discovery of Gamma-ray Footpoint Structures

RHESSI has made detailed images of gamma-rays emitted by solar flares. This had never been done before, and it showed that the gamma-ray sources tend to have a double-footpoint structure as do hard X-rays, but (significantly) at different locations (Hurford et al. 2003, 2006). Smith et al. (2003) were also able to show, from the Doppler shift of several gamma-ray lines, that the magnetic field lines down which the emitting ions were traveling had to be tilted from the vertical at an angle of some 30 to 40 degrees. This result combined with the detection of gamma-ray footpoint emission shows clearly that the ions must have been accelerated over a relatively small volume in the corona, in the primary flare energy source, rather than over a broad area at a shock front propagating far from the flare.

Related Papers


Figure: Flare photon flux spectrum.
Figure: Source electron flux spectra.

Energy Content & Spectrum of Flare Energetic Electrons

RHESSI’s uniquely high energy resolution (~1 keV FWHM is sufficient to resolve the steep high energy fall-off of hot flare thermal continuum, allowing the precise determination of the energy above which the hard X-ray emission must be non-thermal (Holman et al 2011). For intense solar flares, RHESSI‘s measurements of the hard X-ray continuum are the best ever obtained from an astrophysical source, precise enough for model-independent deconvolution (using powerful mathematical techniques developed for RHESSI observations, e.g., Kontar et al, 2011) to obtain the spectrum of the bremsstrahlung-emitting source electrons. For flare hard X-ray spectra that showed flattening at low energies, the derived electron source spectra appear to show a roll-off around 20 - 40 keV (Kasparova et al., 2005), but after correcting for albedo (the Compton scattering of the source hard X-rays by the solar photosphere), using a newly-developed Green’s function method (Kontar et al 2006), all the derived source electron power-law spectra extend with no roll-off down to <~20 keV and sometimes as low as ~12 keV (see also Sui et al, 2005, 2007), where the hot flare thermal emission dominates. This implies that the source energetic electrons must contain a large fraction of the energy released in many flares.

Holman et al 2011, Space Sci. Rev., 159, 107. Kasparova et al., 2005, Sol. Phys., 232, 63. Kontar et al 2006, Astro. Astrophys. 446, 1157. Kontar et al, 2011, Space Sci. Rev. , 159, 301. Massone et al, 2004, ApJ., 613, 1233. Saint-Hilaire & Benz 2005, A&A, 435, 743. Sui et al, 2005, ApJ, 626, 1102. Sui et al, 2007, ApJ, 670, 862. Veronig et al. 2005, ApJ, 621, 482.


Figure 1: X-ray images of flare on 20 Jan. 2005 showing coronal hard X-ray source.

Nonthermal Emissions from the Corona

RHESSI's excellent energy resolution in combination with its imaging capability made it for the first time possible to cleanly measure nonthermal emissions from the corona (e.g. Battaglia & Benz 2006). These observations reveal that a non-thermal component is present in essentially all flares (Krucker & Lin 2008). RHESSI discovered that coronal nonthermal emissions are found in a large variety of associations such as in the pre-flare phase (Lin et al. 2003), in the absence of footpoint emission (Veronig & Brown 2004), associated with jets (Bain et al. 2009), with Coronal Mass Ejections (Krucker et al. 2007), and also in the gamma-ray range (Krucker et al. 2008). These observations indicate that a significant fraction of the total accelerated electrons are in the corona at one time, clearly favoring an acceleration site in the corona. Some rare, extremely bright sources provide crucial tests of the maximal efficiency of different acceleration models. The extreme brightness suggests that all electrons within the source are accelerated in a bulk energization process (Krucker et al. 2010, Ishikawa et al. 2011). Simultaneous microwave observations indicate that the energy in accelerated electrons at the peak of the event is of the same order of magnitude as the magnetic energy (i.e. plasma beta near unity). This indicates an extremely efficient conversion of magnetic energy into kinetic energy.

Bain & Fletcher 2009, A&A, 466, 713. Battaglia & Benz 2007, A&A, 466, 713. Ishikawa et al. 2011, 737, 48. Krucker et al. 2007, ApJ, 595, L69. Krucker & Lin 2008, ApJ, 673, 1181. Krucker etal. 2008, ApJ, 678, L63. Krucker et al. 2010, ApJ, 714, 1108. Lin et al. 2003, ApJ, 595, L69. Veronig & Brown 2004, ApJ, 603, L117.


Figure: Twin coronal X-ray sources with footpoints and presumptive location of energy release site indicated.

Double Coronal X-ray Sources

The detection of twin coronal X-ray sources, one at the top and the other above the top of the flare loops. For both sources, higher energy and, therefore, higher temperature emission is shifted toward the region between the sources. This provided the strongest evidence yet for energy release in the corona between the two sources as indicated in the figure. Several other similar events have been reported, e. g. Liu and Petrosian, but it is not known how common this phenomenon might be.

Sui and Holman, 2003, Evidence for the Formation of a Large-Scale Current Sheet in a Solar Flare, ApJ, 596, L251-L254. Liu et al. 2008, ApJ, 676, 704.


Figure: Spectra of upwards and downwards directed electrons.

Photosphere as a Compton or dentist's mirror

With RHESSI's excellent spectral resolution, we can use the albedo contribution to the measured hard X-ray flux to our advantage. Kontar and Brown (2006) showed that, by considering the Sun’s surface to act as a “Compton mirror,” we can look at the emitting electrons both directly and from behind the source, providing vital information on the directionality of the propagating particles. Using this technique, they determined simultaneously the electron spectra of downward- and upward-directed electrons for two solar flares observed with RHESSI. The results reveal surprisingly near-isotropic electron distributions, which contrast strongly with the expectations from the standard model that invokes strong downward beaming, including a collisional thick-target model. Some would say that this result provides strong evidence against electron beam models in that simple particle beams aren't present in the energetically important particle distributions.

Kontar, E. P. and Brown, J. C., 2006, STEREOSCOPIC ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY OF SOLAR HARD X-RAY FLARES WITH A SINGLE SPACECRAFT, ApJ., 653, L149.


Figure:Location of ~25,000 microflares on the solar disc.

Microflares and the Quiet Sun

RHESSI could readily observe both hard and soft X-rays from microflares, determining both spectrum and location. The figure shows the solar coordinates of some 25,000 of them. Their distribution in space shows that they all come from active regions within the active North and South latitude bands. This establishes conclusively that flares, microflares, or nanoflares - if they resemble flares - do not heat the quiet corona.

Related to this, RHESSI has established the lowest upper limits on quiet-Sun hard X-ray emission. This could come from a variety of sources, but again nanoflares would be an intriguing possibility.

Benz & Grigis 2002, Sol. Phys., 210, 431.

Christe, S.; Hannah, I. G.; Krucker, S.; McTiernan, J.; Lin, R. P., 2008, RHESSI Microflare Statistics. I. Flare-Finding and Frequency Distributions, ApJ., 677, 1385.

Hannah, I. G.; Christe, S.; Krucker, S.; Hurford, G. J.; Hudson, H. S.; Lin, R. P., 2008, RHESSI Microflare Statistics. II. X-Ray Imaging, Spectroscopy, and Energy Distributions, ApJ., 677, 704.

Hannah, I. G.; Hudson, H. S.; Hurford, G. J.; Lin, R. P., 2010, Constraining the Hard X-ray Properties of the Quiet Sun with New RHESSI Observations, ApJ., 724, 487.

Stoiser et al. 2007, Sol. Phys., 246, 339.


Figure:Spectrum and image during during the 2002 July 23 X4.8 flare.

Location of Superhot X-ray source

Caspi and Lin (2010) reported two spatially distinct isothermal coronal X-ray sources during the 2002 July 23 X4.8 flare. One source had a temperature of >30 MK and the second, at a lower altitude, had a lower temperature of <~25 MK. They claim that the super-hot source location and its presence at the flare onset — in the absence of HXR footpoint emission — point to a coronal origin for the >30 MK plasma, while the <25 MK plasma originates primarily from chromospheric evaporation. The super-hot and hot plasmas thus arise from fundamentally different physical processes.

Caspi, A. and Lin , R. P., 2010,RHESSI Line and Continuum Observations of Super-hot Flare Plasma, ApJ., 725, L161.


Figure Altitude variations of the coronal X-ray source observed during the 2002 April 14–15 flare.

Initial downward motion of X-ray sources

Sui and Holman (2003) also reported the initial downward motion of the coronal X-ray source prior to the previously reported continuous upward motion. This was further detailed by Sui et al. (2004), where it was shown that the rate of altitude increase correlated with the hard X-ray flux suggesting that it was related to the energy release rate. This initial downward motion has been seen now in other flares (e.g. Ji et al. 2008) and at other wavelengths, and it appears to be associated with the propagation of reconnection along flare ribbons, but its interpretation is still unclear.

Sui, Holman, & Dennis, 2004, Evidence for Magnetic Reconnection in Three Homologous Solar Flares Observed by RHESSI, Ap. J., 612, 546.

Ji, Haisheng; Wang, Haimin; Liu, Chang; Dennis, Brian R., 2008, A Hard X-Ray Sigmoidal Structure during the Initial Phase of the 2003 October 29 X10 Flare, ApJ 680, 734.


Figure: RHESSI count spectra of the solar 511 keV annihilation line during the 2003 October 28 flare.

Broadened 511-keV positron annihilation line

Measurement of a surprisingly broad 511-keV positron annihilation line indicating that the temperature of the ion interaction region was above 105, K. Later, in some flares, the width of the line narrows to ∼1 keV consistent with annihilation in ionized H at < 104K and ≥1015 cm-3. The full implications of these observations are still unclear but they bring into question the energy source of the heating and if the ions alone can produce such a highly dynamic flaring atmosphere at chromospheric densities that can reach transition-region temperatures, then cool to less than 104 K in minutes while remaining highly ionized.

Share et al. 2004, RHESSI e+ -- e- Annihilation Radiation Observations: Implications for conditions in the Flaring Solar Chromosphere, ApJ, 615, L169.


Figure: Hard X-ray and white light imaging of a flare ribbon.

HXR Flare Ribbons

With RHESSI’s unprecedented (2 arcsec) spatial resolution, detailed HXR imaging of flare ribbons finally became possible. This showed elongated structures along the ribbon that closely match the white light sources, but only partially match the EUV sources (Liu et al. 2007, Dennis & Pernak 2009, Krucker et al. 2011). The width of these sources, however, was often unresolved even by RHESSI, yielding an upper limit of ~1 arcsec for the dimension. This indicates that the number density of precipitating electrons is even larger than previously thought. These observations challenge our current understanding of the standard flare model and provide crucial new insights to understand electron acceleration and transport.

Liu, Lee, Gary, & Wang 2007, ApJ, 658, L127.

Dennis & Pernak 2009, ApJ 698, 2131.

Krucker, Hudson, Jeffrey, Battaglia, Kontar, Benz, Csillaghy, & Lin 2011, Apj, 739, 96.


Non-flare-related Items

Figure: Space measurements of solar oblateness.

Solar Oblateness

Measurements of the solar diameter using RHESSI's Solar Aspect System showed unexpectedly large flattening compared to what is predicted from solar rotation. Fivian et al. (2008) were able to show that this effect was due to magnetic elements in the enhanced network producing emission preferentially at lower latitudes. Once this contribution was removed, the corrected oblateness of the nonmagnetic Sun was determined to be 8.01 +/- 0.14 milli–arc seconds, which is near the value expected from rotation of 7.8 milli–arc seconds, or ~0.001%. This result explained the variation that had been reported with solar cycle and is the most accurate measure of the true oblateness ever made.

Fivian, Martin D.; Hudson, Hugh S.; Lin, Robert P.; Zahid, H. Jabran, 2008, A Large Excess in Apparent Solar Oblateness Due to Surface Magnetism, Science, 322, 560.


Figure: RHESSI 20 - 100 keV light curves of the giant magnetar flare

Magnetar timing and spectroscopy

RHESSI serendipitously detected a huge flare from the soft-gamma-ray repeater (SGR) 1806–20 that was just 5.25° from the Sun at the time of the observations. SGRs are thought to be magnetar - isolated, strongly magnetized neutron stars with teragauss exterior magnetic fields and even stronger fields within, making them the most strongly-magnetized objects in the Universe. In the first 0.2 s, the flare released as much energy as the Sun radiates in a quarter of a million years. This observation suggested that a significant fraction of the mysterious short-duration gamma-ray bursts may come from similar extragalactic magnetars.

Later work by Watts and Strohmayer (2006) revealed quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) in the RHESSI timing data directly related to the "ringing" modes of the neutron star and interpreted as arising from vibrations in the neutron star crust offers a novel means of testing the neutron star equation of state, crustal breaking strain, and magnetic field configuration.

Hurley et al., 2005, An exceptionally bright flare from SGR 1806−20 and the origins of short-duration gamma-ray bursts, Nature, 434, 1098.

Watts, A. L. and Strohmayer, T. E., 2006, Detection with RHESSI of High-Frequency X-Ray Oscillations in the Tail of the 2004 Hyperflare from SGR 1806-20, ApJ., 637, L117.


Figure: Accumulated spectra of 85 RHESSI TGFs.

Terrestrial Gamma-ray Flashes (TGFs)

RHESSI has detected over 1000 TGFs that were first discovered with BATSE on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory and are thought to be related to terrestrial lightening. RHESSI showed that TGFs are much more common and luminous than previously thought, and that they extend up to gamma-ray energies beyond 20 MeV, with just the spectral shape predicted by the relativistic runaway model. RHESSI's observations also show that the TGFs come from altitudes of around 15 km, and that they are associated with intra-cloud lightning and not cloud-to-ground lightning or sprites.

Smith, D. M., L. I. Lopez, R. P. Lin, and C. P. Barrington-Leigh, 2005, Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes observed up to 20 MeV, Science, 307, 1085–1088.

Dwyer and Smith, 2005, A comparison between Monte Carlo simulations of runaway breakdown and terrestrial gamma-ray flash observations, GRL, 32, L22804.

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