https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php?title=Special:NewPages&feed=atom&hideliu=&hidepatrolled=&hidebots=&hideredirs=1&limit=50&namespace=0RHESSI Wiki - New pages [en]2024-03-28T20:17:55ZFrom RHESSI WikiMediaWiki 1.16.0https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/When_it_rippled_in_one_place_and_exploded_in_anotherWhen it rippled in one place and exploded in another2023-12-28T17:52:00Z<p>Hhudson: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = When it rippled in one place and exploded in another <br />
|number = 465<br />
|first_author = Ivan ZIMOVETS <br />
|publish_date = December 25, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::464]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
A flare, as an example of a powerful phenomenon of energy release in a <br />
complex system, has analogs in with earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.<br />
Solar flares have various <br />
[https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Search_for_a_Flare_Anticipation_Index_(FAI) precursors].<br />
One important type of precursor consists of quasi-periodic fluctuations or <br />
pulsations in radiation, in particular in the microwave [Ref. 1]<br />
and soft X-ray [Refs. 2, 3] ranges. <br />
Some believe that it is even possible to <i>predict</i> solar flares <br />
based on the detection of such precursors.<br />
However, the situation is not as simple as it might seem. <br />
Firstly,<br />
low-amplitude pulsations are not detected before all flares,<br />
especially in the X-ray range. <br />
And even if pulsations are detected<br />
before the flare, there is still no reliable way to associate their<br />
parameters with parameters (e.g., the start time and class) of a<br />
coming flare in real time. <br />
<br />
== Sun-as-a-Star, or Imaging? ==<br />
<br />
Relying on instruments without<br />
spatial resolution (which are the bulk of detectors operating in<br />
the X-ray and radio bands), it is impossible to determine unambiguously<br />
from which region at the Sun pulsations (or other precursors) <br />
might be coming. <br />
For example, [Ref. 3] showed that in a significant fraction of<br />
events, the sources of X-ray pulsations are located in other active<br />
regions than the subsequent large flares.<br />
<br />
Here we present one vivid example of an event of this kind, for<br />
which we tried, but found no signs of a physical connection between<br />
the pulsations and the flare after them.<br />
Figure 1 gives an overview.<br />
<br />
[[File:465f1.png|500px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Temporal profiles of X-ray emission in different energy channels<br />
of Fermi/GBM (a), RHESSI (b), GOES/XRS (c), and temperature of<br />
emitting plasma calculated from GOES/XRS data (d).<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
RHESSI observed X-ray sources of quasi-periodic pulsations (with a<br />
period P = 1.5&plusmn;0.1 min), which began at about 18:02 UT on November 5,<br />
2013, in AR 11884 in the <i>western</i> solar hemisphere (Figure 2). <br />
Meanwhile the sources<br />
of the main M1.0 flare SOL2013-11-05T18:08 were located in AR 11890<br />
in the <i>eastern</i> hemisphere. <br />
These pulsations have been also detected with <br />
[Fermi/GBM] and <br />
[GOES/XRS], <br />
excluding the possibility of an<br />
[https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Harmonic_Oscillations artifact].<br />
<br />
[[File:465f2.png|500px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
Location of 6-12 keV X-ray sources (synthesized from RHESSI data) at <br />
the solar disk at the eight time intervals t1-t8 shown in Figure 1.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
Could the remote pulsations (see our <br />
[https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/RHESSI_Science_Nuggets Nugget icon image])<br />
possibly have had a physical relationship with the flare?<br />
We can probably rule out any connection based on MHD energy coupling,<br />
(since the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfvén_wav Alfv&eacute;n velocity]<br />
in the corona usually does not exceed the 1500 km/s, and indeed the <br />
oscillating region produced <br />
[https://science.nasa.gov/get-involved/citizen-science/solar-jet-hunter-is-back-with-new-data-and-new-features/ jets] <br />
at comparable and lower velocities (Figure 3). <br />
<br />
[[File:465f3.png|500px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 3:</b> <i><br />
Difference images in the <br />
[SDO/AIA]<br />
131 &Aring; channel of active regions 11884<br />
(a-h) and 11890 (i-p) overlaid with contours of 6-12 keV X-ray<br />
sources (red) for eight time intervals t1-t8 shown in Figure 1. The<br />
jets are shown by arrows in (b-h). <br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
Thus, we conclude that there was no physical connection between<br />
preflare X-ray pulsations (and jets) and the flare that followed<br />
them. <br />
This temporal coincidence of the two phenomena probably<br />
happened by accident. <br />
Observations show that this is not so rare - tens<br />
of percent for X-ray pulsations before flares appear to occur <br />
remotely from the flaring active region. <br />
<br />
== Conclusions ==<br />
<br />
This event demonstrates the importance of spatially<br />
resolved observations in the study of pulsations on the Sun (and<br />
other stars), especially when it comes to such an important task<br />
as forecasting powerful flares. And.. What is the mechanism of the<br />
quasi-periodic pulsations and the jets? That is another story!<br />
<br />
See [Ref. 4] for more information about this study. <br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Ge&Ae..60..846A "Solar-Flare Precursors in the Microwave Range"] <br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ApJ...833..206T "Very Long-period Pulsations before the Onset of Solar Flares"]<br />
<br />
[3] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Ge&Ae..62..356Z "Sources of Long-Period X-ray Pulsations before the Onset of Solar Flares"]<br />
<br />
[4] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Ge&Ae..63..513Z "Preflare X-ray Pulsations with Sources Outside the Main Flare Active Region"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Solar_flares:_evaporation_and_simulationSolar flares: evaporation and simulation2023-12-18T11:12:28Z<p>Hhudson: /* Results */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Solar flares: evaporation and simulation<br />
|number = 464<br />
|first_author = Malcolm DRUETT <br />
|publish_date = December 18, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::463]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Numerical models of solar flares provide interpretations of the <br />
energy transport and release processes, and importantly this includes <br />
some process that both heats and drives upflows of dense material from <br />
the lower atmosphere.<br />
These hot upflows are commonly known as "chromospheric evaporation", though<br />
the physics would be better described as "ablation".<br />
Chromospheric evaporation is critical to the interpretation of both <br />
the emission and the dynamics of the lower solar atmosphere, and also <br />
for the information<br />
encoded in bright loop-top ultraviolet and soft x-ray emission from<br />
previously evaporated material.<br />
<br />
There is still debate regarding the agents responsible for this key<br />
physical process. <br />
Proposed mechanisms include simple <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conduction heat conduction], <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfvén_wave Alfv&eacute;n waves], and the <br />
impact of outflow jets from<br />
[https://mrx.pppl.gov/Physics/physics.html magnetic reconnection]. <br />
The standard interpretation involves<br />
beams of energetic particles that originate<br />
in the solar corona and travel along magnetic field lines to deposit<br />
their energy in the lower atmosphere. <br />
The beam-electron model also <br />
explains the strong <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremsstrahlung Bremsstrahlung]<br />
emission that is observed in<br />
[https://www.astro.gla.ac.uk/cartoons/ flare loop foot-points], <br />
produced by collisions between the beam particles and the ambient plasma.<br />
<br />
Moreover, there is also a schism between the approaches used in 1D<br />
(field-aligned) and multi-dimensional (full MHD)<br />
[https://www.astro.gla.ac.uk/cartoons/ models].<br />
The 1D models <br />
generally use combinations of thermal conduction and beams of energetic<br />
particles to drive chromospheric evaporation. <br />
Multi-dimensional<br />
models often either omit the process, or use a strong reconnection<br />
outflow originating in the corona and impacting the lower atmosphere<br />
to drive the evaporation.<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
Two recent manuscripts (Refs. [1], [2]]) <br />
have produced the first multi-dimensional chromospheric<br />
evaporation by beams of electrons, and also<br />
laid key groundwork to help compare results from 1D and multi-dimensional<br />
models.<br />
<br />
This was achieved by placing models of 1D field-aligned electron<br />
beams within a multi-dimensional model (Ref. [3]).<br />
Figure 1 illustrates the calculations.<br />
By adjusting the scheme of plasma resistivity in the corona so that a<br />
gentle initial phase produced pre-existing flare loops, we can <br />
avoid the reconnection outflow jet directly impacting onto the solar<br />
surface below (Ref. [2]), thus allowing the particle beams<br />
to drive the evaporation.<br />
<br />
[[File:464f1.png|700px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Snapshot of a flare simulation with chromospheric evaporation driven<br />
by beams of electrons. The locations of the beam electrons are<br />
highlighted in the left panel. There is gentler, lower density<br />
evaporation outside of the locations of the beam electrons, but the highest <br />
density and velocity evaporation is co-spatial with the beams at around +-20Mm<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
Figure 2 compares the multidimensional results with the 1D approach.<br />
<br />
[[File:464f2.png|500px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
A 1D cut taken along one fieldline, for comparison between<br />
multi-dimensional models and their 1D counterparts. One foot-point<br />
of the fieldline fixed at y=0. In the simulation shown in Figure 2, <br />
beam electrons are not the key agents driving the evaporation.<br />
There is an intrusion of heating due to multi-dimensional effects<br />
at l = 20 Mm and t = 90 s. Thermal conduction transfers this heat<br />
parallel to the fieldlines and generates chromospheric evaporation<br />
at around t = 95 s. The beam electrons arrive at later times (t > 100<br />
s, red line in panel a) and provide negligible additional impact.<br />
Turbulent effects on the flows are seen at l = 30-40 Mm.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusions ==<br />
<br />
These results open up a new state-of-the-art in flare modelling as<br />
well as providing opportunities for collaboration between 1D and <br />
multi-dimensional modelling approaches. <br />
We can look to provide a best-of-both-worlds<br />
route forward that includes the critical physics, highlighted in<br />
detailed 1D models, within the multi-dimensional models of the<br />
future.<br />
<br />
Multi-dimensional effects can also explain additional physics within<br />
flares. One example is reported in Ref. [4], namely that<br />
the leading edges of and expanding chromospheric flare ribbon are<br />
frequently associated with less evaporation and lower levels of<br />
beam electrons. In multi-dimensional models (Druett et al. 2023)<br />
this effect is manifested due to heat diffusion and the compression<br />
of field outside of the reconnected flare loops. Thus heat intrudes<br />
outward onto neighbouring field-lines, and thermal conduction fronts<br />
travel along that field-line, often reaching the chromosphere before<br />
the associated field-line has actually reconnected.<br />
<br />
== Acknowledgements ==<br />
<br />
I would like to thank my co-authors on these papers: Wenzhi Ruan and Rony Keppens. <br />
I would also like to thank Alexander Pietrow for his constructive input and additionally, <br />
Hugh Hudson for his help editing this Nugget.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023SoPh..298..134D "Chromospheric Evaporation by Particle Beams in Multi-Dimensional Flare Models"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023arXiv231009939D "Exploring self-consistent 2.5 D flare simulations with MPI-AMRVAC"]<br />
<br />
[3] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ApJ...896...97R "A Fully Self-consistent Model for Solar Flares"]<br />
<br />
[4] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ApJ...944..104P "Solar Flare Ribbon Fronts. I. Constraining Flare Energy Deposition with IRIS Spectroscopy"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Pre-impulsive_and_Impulsive_Phases_of_the_March_28,_2022_Sub-Terahertz_FlarePre-impulsive and Impulsive Phases of the March 28, 2022 Sub-Terahertz Flare2023-12-12T10:41:20Z<p>Hhudson: /* Acknowledgments */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Pre-impulsive and Impulsive Phases of the March 28, 2022 Sub-Terahertz Flare<br />
|number = 463<br />
|first_author = Galina G. MOTORINA <br />
|publish_date = December 11, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::462]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Rarely, observations show a mysterious emission behavior in the "sub-THz" <br />
spectral domain (mm wavelengths).<br />
This emission <i>rises</i> to shorter wavelengths, rather than falling as <br />
one normally sees even at longer cm wavelengths.<br />
What is the origin of this interesting phenomenon?<br />
The discovery of this mysterious sub-THz<br />
component in the early 2000s received a noticeable attention from<br />
solar flare researchers (e.g., Ref. [1]). <br />
However, each of proposed<br />
mechanisms (models) to explain its occurrence faces certain<br />
difficulties.<br />
<br />
The problem of the lower atmosphere heating and energy transfer of<br />
accelerated particles to the dense layers of the chromosphere/photosphere<br />
also remains unresolved. <br />
In particular, X-ray sources in the<br />
pre-impulsive phase of a flare may be located at the footpoints of<br />
coronal loops with temperatures around 10-15 MK. <br />
On the other hand, sub-THz emission associated with X-ray emission <br />
might be caused by the thermal plasma of the corona, transition<br />
region, and chromosphere. <br />
This suggests that the study of the sub-THz<br />
and X-ray sources can give valuable information about the heating<br />
of the chromospheric plasma, which can be produced by accelerated<br />
electrons, thermal fluxes, shock waves, and <i>in situ</i> flare energy<br />
release.<br />
<br />
The present work is devoted to a detailed analysis of the<br />
SOL2022-03-28T10:58 (M4.0) solar flare observed first of all with the <br />
[https://www.ruseducation.in/university/bauman-moscow-state-technical-university/ Bauman Moscow State Technical University] <br />
Radio Telescope RT-7.5 at 93 GHz. <br />
We have now investigated the contribution of the coronal<br />
and chromospheric flare plasma heated by accelerated electrons or<br />
by coronal thermal fluxes to the generation of the observed sub-THz<br />
radiation with a positive spectral slope primarily in the pre-impulsive<br />
phase of the solar flare (Ref. [2]).<br />
<br />
== Observational Data and Processing ==<br />
<br />
The SOL2022-03-28T105800 flare was observed by several instruments:<br />
in EUV (Figure 1), X-ray (Figure 2a, b), microwave, and sub-THz<br />
(Figure 2 c, d) ranges. The time profile of sub-THz radiation at<br />
93 GHz (Figure 2d) with a temporal resolution of about 5 min was<br />
obtained from maps (e.g., Figure 1e) obtained with the RT-7.5 radio<br />
telescope. Figure 2d shows that during the pre-impulsive phase of<br />
the flare the spectral flux density of sub-THz radiation was <br />
approximately 20 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flux_unit SFU].<br />
During the sub-THz maximum at ~11:28 UT the<br />
spectral flux density of the flare (Figure 2f) was positive between<br />
frequencies of 26 and 93 GHz with a spectral index of 0.6.<br />
<br />
We employ SDO/AIA data to infer the differential mission measure<br />
(DEM) to quantify the contribution of the spectral flux F from the<br />
flare plasma in the temperature range 0.5-32 MK to the observed sub-THz<br />
emission. <br />
Based on the obtained distributions DEM(T) and the maximum<br />
thermal source area S = 7.8x10<sup>18</sup> cm<sup>3</sup> <br />
(Figure 1) we calculate F at<br />
93 GHz in the assumption of thermal bremsstrahlung, which turned<br />
out to be equal 1.5 sfu (11:00 UT) and 45 sfu (11:28 UT). These<br />
values were noticeably underestimated compared to the observed<br />
values of 20&plusmn;5 sfu and 125&plusmn;31 sfu, respectively. <br />
This means that the coronal plasma contributes only insignificantly <br />
to the observed sub-THz flare emission at 93 GHz.<br />
<br />
[[File:463f1.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
AIA maps of SOL2022-03-28 with a contour at 50% of the intensity maximum.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
[[File:463f2.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
Left: the time profiles of SOL2022-03-28<br />
obtained with Fermi/GBM (a), GOES (b), at two microwave frequencies (c), <br />
and at 93 GHz (d); Right: the flare map at 93 GHz (e), the flare flux density<br />
spectrum (f).<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
To estimate the contribution of accelerated electrons to the chromospheric heating <br />
we fit the X-ray spectra assuming isothermal plasma for the pre-impulsive phase<br />
(11:00 UT, Figure 3 left), and isothermal plasma and a thick-target<br />
model during the peak of the flare (11:28 UT, Figure 3 right).<br />
Within the thick-target the parameters of accelerated electrons<br />
were: the spectral index &delta; = 7.86, the low-energy cut-off <br />
E<sub>0</sub> = 18.57 keV, and the total integrated electron flux <br />
F = 8.57 x 10<sup>35</sup> s<sup>-1</sup>.<br />
During the peak the spectrum of accelerated electrons was <br />
too soft (spectral index &delta; = 7.86) to effectively heat <br />
the plasma of the transition region and chromosphere.<br />
<br />
[[File:463f3.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 3:</b> <i><br />
The averaged Fermi/GBM X-ray spectrum fitted by the isothermal<br />
plasma for the time interval 11:00-11:01 UT (left); the isothermal<br />
plasma and thick target model for 11:28:00-11:28:12 UT (right).<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
To estimate the role of coronal thermal fluxes in the heating of<br />
chromospheric plasma we calculate the characteristic heating time<br />
due to electron thermal conductivity. The obtained estimate (a few<br />
tens of hours) excludes the possibility of effective heating of the<br />
chromosphere by coronal thermal fluxes during the flare energy<br />
release.<br />
<br />
== Conclusions ==<br />
<br />
We have found that the hot coronal loops observed in the EUV emission<br />
make a negligible contribution to the sub-THz flare emission. The<br />
main contribution must be from the optically thick layers of the<br />
heated chromosphere. On the other hand, the nonthermal electron<br />
parameters calculated from the X-ray data indicate a negligible<br />
contribution of accelerated electrons to the heating of the<br />
chromospheric plasma. This leads to an important conclusion about<br />
the existence an additional source of energy release located directly<br />
in the Sun's chromosphere. Most likely, heating of the chromosphere<br />
occurred as a result of an increasing Joule dissipation of the<br />
electric current during the flare.<br />
<br />
== Acknowledgements ==<br />
<br />
Co-authors Yu.T. Tsap, V.V. Smirnova, A.S. Morgachev, A.D. Shramko,<br />
and A.S. Motorin contributed to this work and to Ref. [2].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013A%26ARv..21...58K "Solar flares at submillimeter wavelengths"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023arXiv231102435M "Pre-impulsive and Impulsive Phases of the Sub-Terahertz Flare of March 28, 2022"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Coronal_Bright_PointsCoronal Bright Points2023-11-29T10:52:12Z<p>Hhudson: /* Numerical Models */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Coronal Bright Points <br />
|number = 462<br />
|first_author = Daniel N&oacute;brega-Siverio<br />
|publish_date = November 27, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::461]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Understanding why the temperature of the<br />
[https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/sun-corona/en/ solar corona] is a few hundred<br />
times larger than that at the surface requires studying the heating<br />
mechanisms across different solar regions and phenomena. <br />
A particularly important case is that of the coronal bright points or CBPs. <br />
These are ubiquitous structures with projected sizes between 5 and 40 Mm<br />
composed of small-scale loops that stand out in the Sun by their<br />
strong X-ray and/or extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) emission for hours<br />
to days. <br />
In addition, CBPs can be the source of coronal jets and<br />
small-scale filament eruptions. <br />
So far, the existing CBP models<br />
have been very idealized, missing crucial aspects of the physics<br />
of the Sun, such as the energization of the magnetic structures by<br />
surface convection and the radiative transfer to explain the coldest<br />
solar atmospheric layers.<br />
<br />
== Numerical Models ==<br />
<br />
In Ref. [1] we present a comprehensive 3D radiative-MHD model using the <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifröst "Bifrost"]<br />
[https://www.mn.uio.no/rocs/english/research-themes/new-code-developments.html code] <br />
for a CBP based on a magnetic "null point" configuration, a common<br />
field-line topology related to this kind of phenomenon. <br />
We have shown that CBPs can be energized, for at least several hours, <br />
through the continuous action of stochastic photospheric convective motions, <br />
thus obviating the need for major, organized photospheric flows such as <br />
converging flows or large-scale surface flows. <br />
We have also detected continuous<br />
upflows with faint EUV signal related to the CBP, resembling<br />
observational dark coronal jets, and small-scale eruptions when H&alpha;<br />
fibrils interact with a <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection magnetic reconnection] <br />
site (see Fig. 1).<br />
<br />
[[File:462f1.png|800px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Experiment overview. (a) 3D magnetic nullpoint topology (red lines)<br />
at t=111.67 minutes superimposed on a magnetic map at z=0.<br />
Blue-purple volume rendering corresponds to upflows with velocities<br />
from 45-75 km/s. <br />
The yellow isosurface at B=1 G harbors the null-point location at the <br />
center of the image. <br />
The red-green-blue coordinate system indicates the x-y-z axis orientation. <br />
(b) Temperature cut at y=16 Mm indicating the location of a hot collimated <br />
coronal jet and the cool erupting structure. <br />
(c) Synthetic response integrated along the y-axis to mimic a limb <br />
observation by <br />
[https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Solar_Orbiter Solar Orbiter/EUI-HRI] <br />
at 174 &Aring;.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Heating ==<br />
<br />
Our investigation reveals that the CBP loops are heated by both<br />
Joule and viscous heating predominantly in the lower atmosphere,<br />
around the CBP's inner spine at a few megameters above the solar<br />
surface, with a secondary contribution at coronal heights close to<br />
the reconnection site (see Fig. 2). <br />
This is a major difference with 2D models, which can only capture <br />
the heating at the reconnection site itself.<br />
Important mechanisms, such as magnetic field-line braiding, are<br />
intrinsically three-dimensional. <br />
We have also found spatial and<br />
time correlation between the Joule and viscous heating within the<br />
CBP, which suggests that the heating results obtained may be widely<br />
independent of the value of the magnetic <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prandtl_number Prandtl number]. <br />
This implies<br />
that, even though current numerical models are far from reproducing<br />
the Prandtl numbers of the solar atmosphere, our results may well<br />
be applicable to understand the heating of small-scale loops (CBPs)<br />
and their properties.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:462f2.png|800px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
Heating in our CBP model, per unit mass, <br />
averaged over the 4.5 hours of the simulation for (a) the Joule term <br />
(electromagnetic)<br />
(b) the viscous heating (hydrodynamic) at z=[8,5,3,2] Mm.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Confronting the Modeling with Observations == <br />
<br />
<br />
To validate our theoretical model, we present simultaneous observations<br />
of a representative CBP from space (from <br />
[https://aia.lmsal.com SDO]) <br />
and from the ground (from the <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Solar_Telescope SST]).<br />
These observations are compared with observable diagnostics calculated<br />
from the numerical results for EUV wavelengths as well as for the<br />
H&alpha; line (see Fig. 3). <br />
The similarities<br />
between the synthetic observables from the model and the observations<br />
are striking, reproducing the bright EUV rowel-like structure of<br />
the CBP, and chromospheric features such as the brightenings in the<br />
core of the H&alpha; line, the dark and elongated H&alpha; fibrils, as well as<br />
their magnetic photospheric connections.<br />
<br />
[[File:462f3.png|800px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 3:</b> <i><br />
Confronting the modeling with observations. <br />
Top: observations of a representative CBP on 2022 July 1 at 08:08:52 UT. <br />
(a), (b) Hot coronal response in EUV detected by SDO/AIA 193 &Aring; and SDO/AIA 171 &Aring;, respectively. (c) Cool chromospheric structure of the CBP in the H&alpha; line core observed with SST/CRISP. <br />
(d) Photospheric line-of-sight magnetic field from SST/CRISP. <br />
(e) H&alpha; profiles for different regions of the dark fibrils (cool colors) and core brightenings (warm colors) marked in panel (c). <br />
The average profile over the whole field-of-view is shown as a black dashed line. <br />
The intensity of the profiles has been normalized to the intensity value at 50 km/s. <br />
Bottom: forward modeling from our 3D CBP numerical experiment as observed on-disk. <br />
(a), (b) Synthetic EUV images for SDO/AIA 193 &Aring; and Solar Orbiter/EUI-HRI 174 &Aring;, respectively. <br />
(c) Synthetic H&alpha; response in the core of the line as observed by SST/CRISP. <br />
(d) Vertical magnetic field at the solar surface. <br />
(e) Synthetic H&alpha; profiles for different regions of the dark fibrils (cool colors) and core brightenings (warm colors) <br />
marked in panel (c).<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023arXiv231111912N "Deciphering the solar coronal heating: Energizing small-scale loops through surface convection"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Aurora-like_Radio_Emission_from_a_SunspotAurora-like Radio Emission from a Sunspot2023-11-21T20:36:42Z<p>Hhudson: /* Electron Cyclotron Maser Emission from a Sunspot */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Aurora-like Radio Emission from a Sunspot<br />
|number = 461<br />
|first_author = Sijie YU <br />
|publish_date = November 20, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::460]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
The fascinating spectacle of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora aurora]<br />
is often accompanied by characteristic radio emissions,<br />
also a hallmark of the<br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetosphere magnetospheres]<br />
of several planets.<br />
These radio bursts are highly polarized and are<br />
typically attributed to electron cyclotron <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maser maser (ECM)] emission,<br />
driven ("pumped") by <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell-Boltzmann_distribution non-Maxwellian]<br />
velocity distributions in regions of converging magnetic fields (Ref. [1]). <br />
Notably, similar bursts have been observed in<br />
magnetically active low-mass stars and <br />
[https://earthsky.org/space/definition-what-are-brown-dwarfs/ brown dwarfs], <br />
suggesting a universal mechanism underpinning these phenomena.<br />
<br />
== Electron Cyclotron Maser Emission from a Sunspot ==<br />
<br />
A recent study (Ref. [2]) has used the <br />
[http://www.vla.nrao.edu Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA)]<br />
to observe long-lasting solar radio bursts over a broad frequency range <br />
(1 to 1.7 GHz) from a bipolar sunspot group (Figure 1(a,b)). <br />
These bursts exhibited characteristics - strong circular polarization,<br />
high brightness temperature, and wide bandwidth - reminiscent of planetary <br />
auroral radio emissions and stellar ECM emissions. <br />
The emissions we describe persisted for a week, and the<br />
VLA observed over a four-hour session during this long-lasting emission (Figure 1(c)). <br />
Intriguingly, the source of these<br />
emissions was located above a sunspot, where a strong and converging<br />
magnetic field is present. <br />
Distinct from another phenomenon,<br />
long-lasting polarized radio emission above sunspots has been<br />
observed for decades, the<br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radio_emission "type I"] radio bursts, our reported<br />
emission clearly differs from these previously known bursts both<br />
spectrally and temporally.<br />
<br />
[[File:461f1.png|800px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Example of a sunspot-associated auroral-like radio source.<br />
(a) VLA snapshot at 1.0 GHz (orange) showing<br />
radio emission from the sunspot, overlaid with EUV images (AIA 171 &Aring;<br />
in blue, 94 &Aring; in cyan, 1600 &Aring;in red). <br />
(b) Detailed view of the sunspot region with radio frequencies at 1.0 GHz (yellow) and <br />
3.8 GHz (magenta). <br />
(c) Dynamic spectrum of right circularly polarized radio<br />
emission (VLA) and time profiles of GOES 1.5-12 keV and 3-24 keV soft X-ray<br />
emissions.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
Dynamic imaging spectroscopy with the VLA created images at hundreds<br />
of frequencies between 1 and 1.5 GHz at various times. The radio<br />
images, predominantly originating from a localized source near the<br />
sunspot, exhibited clear spatial dispersion across different<br />
frequencies. The frequency-dependent source centroid locations of<br />
each burst formed a near-linear dispersion in space, with the<br />
high-frequency ends oriented towards the sunspot. This rapid variation<br />
in the frequency-spatial dispersion and position angles of the<br />
bursts relative to the sunspot is illustrated in Figure 2 (upper<br />
panel).<br />
<br />
[[File:461f2.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
Sunspot auroral radio source dynamics. Upper Panel: Spatial<br />
distribution of ECM sources delineating convergent magnetic field<br />
lines around the sunspot. Bottom Panel: Schematic representation<br />
of the electron acceleration process leading to the sunspot radio<br />
aurorae.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
The unique morphology and frequency dispersion in space are consistent<br />
with ECM emission, possibly driven by energetic electrons produced in <br />
nearby solar flares, as depicted in the bottom panel of Figure 2.<br />
This emission is interpreted as ECM emission induced by persistent<br />
energetic electrons trapped in large-scale magnetic loops anchored<br />
at the sunspot. The converging magnetic field above the sunspot<br />
forms a low-density cavity, conducive to ECM emission. This persistent<br />
radio emission suggests a continuous, albeit sporadic, operation<br />
of maser radiation, requiring frequent replenishment of energetic<br />
electrons to maintain the electron anisotropy in the radio source.<br />
<br />
== Solar-Stellar Connection ==<br />
<br />
This discovery sheds new light on the origins of intense solar radio<br />
bursts and suggests fresh avenues for understanding similar phenomena<br />
in distant stars with pronounced starspots. <br />
A continuously replenished pool of energetic electrons, potentially<br />
due to stellar flaring activity, could be trapped above starspots,<br />
enabling ECM emissions even without a globally dipolar magnetic<br />
field. <br />
This mechanism could lead to sharply-beamed ECM emission<br />
above these starspots, resulting in auroral-like radio bursts that<br />
align with the rotational period of the host star (Figure 3), as<br />
seen in numerous cases of stellar ECM emissions.<br />
<br />
[[File:461f3.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 3:</b> <i><br />
Flux profile of a radio-hosting active region (NOAA AR 12529) over one solar rotation cycle.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
This concept aligns with observations of periodic radio emissions<br />
from some stars, which coincide with their rotational cycles and<br />
have been historically interpreted as emanating from their polar<br />
regions. <br />
A starspot ECM emission model might therefore revise our<br />
current understanding of how stellar radio ECM emissions form,<br />
impacting theories about stellar internal dynamo mechanisms and the<br />
habitability of exoplanetary systems. <br />
Additionally, this model could<br />
explain the radio emissions from non-flaring, quiescent stars, which<br />
often deviate from the tight "G\"{u}del-Benz" radio-X-ray correlation typically<br />
observed in stellar emissions.<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
<br />
The detection of aurora-like radio emissions above a sunspot provides<br />
a novel perspective on solar and stellar magnetic activities. By<br />
studying such phenomena in our solar system, we can gain insights<br />
applicable to other star systems, particularly those with significant<br />
magnetic activity and starspots. This study opens avenues for further<br />
exploration into the mechanisms driving such emissions and their<br />
broader implications in astrophysics and exoplanetary research.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982ApJ...259..844M "Electron-cyclotron masers as the source of certain solar and stellar radio bursts"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023arXiv231001240Y "Detection of long-lasting aurora-like radio emission above a sunspot"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Search_for_a_Flare_Anticipation_Index_(FAI)Search for a Flare Anticipation Index (FAI)2023-11-13T12:19:19Z<p>Hhudson: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Search for a Flare Anticipation Index (FAI) <br />
|number = 460<br />
|first_author = Hugh HUDSON<br />
|second_author = Jim McTIERNAN<br />
|publish_date = November 13, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::459]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Flares often have precursor signatures that anticipate what is to happen.<br />
Can we codify this as an "Anticipation Index" (AI), or even learn how to<br />
interpret the signals to predict the characteristics (total energy, time<br />
scale, or other)?<br />
Flare precursors are often described, frequently as anecdotal issues in <br />
papers about individual flares, but the most useful Flare Anticipation Index<br />
would be one that precedes the flare by a few minutes, is robust, and is infallible.<br />
Among precursor phenomena we could list <br />
Filament rise<br />
Filament activation<br />
Preflare EUV dimming<br />
Preflare emission-line broadening<br />
Microwave precursor (Ref. [1])<br />
Soft X-ray hot onset (HOPE; Ref. [2])<br />
among others. Of those listed the first three apply mainly to eruptive <br />
flares, but the latter three may be more general.<br />
<br />
We want to gain systematic knowledge of flare precursors just for their<br />
physical significance, but there is also a practical application for any<br />
FAI that can give few-minute advance notice: to enable initiation of an<br />
observing campaign, such as a rocket launches.<br />
<br />
== Microwave precursors ==<br />
<br />
The important Ref. [1] described the pioneering observations from<br />
an early development of the <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owens_Valley_Solar_Array Owens Valley Radio Observatory],<br />
but it seems to have excited little attention at the time.<br />
These observations showed a gradual increase at low flux levels <br />
(below one [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flux_unit SFU], a very low level for the Sun). <br />
At present we do not understand the mechanism of this phenomenon.<br />
In this Nugget we describe an initial FAI application of<br />
[http://www.ovsa.njit.edu EOVSA] (Owens Valley): broad-band sums of<br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometric_visibility visibilities] <br />
over three spectral ranges over 1-18 GHz.<br />
<br />
== Hot Onset Precursor Events ==<br />
<br />
Ref. [2] pointed out that virtually all solar flares, as observed in<br />
soft X-rays, actually have a "hot onset" precursor, during which isothermal<br />
fits to the two-channel<br />
[https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/products/goes-x-ray-flux GOES] data<br />
show increasing emission measure at roughly constant temperature,<br />
typically about 10 MK.<br />
This is the HOPE ("Hot Onset Precursor Event"), and it is also not understood<br />
systematically at present.<br />
<br />
== Successful flare anticipation ==<br />
<br />
To test these microwave and soft X-ray signatures, we have initially <br />
tried one active day, 4-September-2017, which had 13 GOES events<br />
including six in the Owens Valley daytime. <br />
Very simple independent FAI algorithms used running-difference fluxes<br />
for the microwaves, and an index based on both emission-measure increase and <br />
temperature.<br />
Figure 1 show that between these two indices, we had four "true positives," no "false positives,"<br />
and two false negatives.<br />
Pretty good, but not perfect <br />
[https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/probability-false-negatives-positives.html statistical results].<br />
<br />
[[File:460f1.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Upper, the HOPE soft X-ray FAI, which triggered on two of the six flare<br />
events in the time range shown.<br />
Here the differencing is at 5 minutes.<br />
Lower, the EOVSA microwave FAI, which found three with a 3-minute differencing.<br />
Neither found false positives.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
To quantify the microwave and soft X-ray signatures of flare precursor activity, we have <br />
devised "flare anticipation indices" for soft X-ray and microwave data <br />
with some success.<br />
This clearly establishes the possibility of a joint FAI development, using<br />
both of these but also others of the signatures listed above, to establish<br />
a robust (and infallible?) few-minute FAI capability.<br />
Now some hard work is necessary to refine and improve on these findings.<br />
Also, it should go without saying, we need to figure out how these various precursors<br />
relate physically to their flares... it is certainly not simply "preheating," as we <br />
perhaps used to think.<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986AdSpR...6f..83V "Solar flare precursors"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MNRAS.501.1273H "Hot X-ray onsets of solar flares"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Bouncing_motions_of_fast_electrons_using_Nobeyama_RadioheliographBouncing motions of fast electrons using Nobeyama Radioheliograph2023-11-12T20:44:39Z<p>Hhudson: /* Observations */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Bouncing motions of fast electrons using Nobeyama Radioheliograph<br />
|number = 459<br />
|first_author = Keitarou MATSUMOTO<br />
|publish_date = November 6, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::458]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
When a solar flare occurs, many particles are accelerated. <br />
It is noteworthy that approximately fifty percent of the total energy<br />
discharged by solar flares may appear in the kinetic energy of <br />
fast electrons.<br />
However we do not observe the accelerated electrons directly, <br />
and remain unclear about the acceleration mechanism that<br />
produces them.<br />
Several models for the acceleration mechanism have been proposed <br />
by various authors, and these may differ in terms of the <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_angle_(particle_motion) pitch-angle]<br />
distribution of the electrons they energize.<br />
<br />
The non-thermal radiations from the accelerated electrons are<br />
important to understand the acceleration mechanisms, and <br />
fortunately solar flares emit strong non-thermal microwave <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation gyro synchrotron] <br />
radiation.<br />
This depends strongly on the pitch angle of the electrons. <br />
That's one of the reasons why non-thermal radiation is essential <br />
to understand the acceleration mechanism.<br />
<br />
The <br />
[https://hinode.isee.nagoya-u.ac.jp/ICCON/ Nobeyama Radio Heliograph] <br />
(NoRH) observed solar flares at two microwave frequencies (17 and 34GHz). <br />
The time resolution was 0.1 seconds, meaning that it could <br />
capture the short time scales of the solar flares, even following<br />
the motion of the electrons.<br />
An early investigation (Ref. [1]) did study the high-speed propagation of the<br />
microwave sources using NoRH and discussed the pitch-angle<br />
distributions of the accelerated electrons. <br />
However, before the launch of the<br />
[https://aia.lmsal.com SDO] satellite with its high-resolution EUV<br />
imaging, this work could not be put in the context of the<br />
coronal magnetic field properly.<br />
We have now analyzed another flare event from the SDO era <br />
and discuss the physics of this flare taking advantage <br />
of the better time resolution.<br />
<br />
== Observations ==<br />
<br />
We analyze the <br />
[https://spaceweather.rra.go.kr/eng/obsenv8.do GOES]<br />
M8.7-class flare SOL2014-10-22, from the very productive <br />
NOAA Active Region (AR) 12192. <br />
The analysis uses <br />
[https://solar.nro.nao.ac.jp/index_nsro_last.html NoRH], <br />
the Solar Dynamics Observatory<br />
[https://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov (SDO)], <br />
RHESSI,<br />
the <i>Fermi</i> Gamma-ray Burst Monitor <br />
[https://fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/instruments/gbm.html (GBM)], <br />
and magnetic-field extrapolations via an<br />
[https://hea-www.harvard.edu/NLFFF/ NLFFF] <br />
model as shown in Figure 1.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:459f1.png|700px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
(a) A 17 GHz image observed with NoRH at 01:45:57.984 UT, with color showing<br />
a logarithmic scale of brightness temperature. <br />
(b) SDO/HMI data at 01:34:15 UT. <br />
The same image as (a) is shown as black contours. <br />
(c) SDO/AIA 94&Aring; image (logarithmic scale) at 01:57:120 UT. The<br />
microwave image from (a) is shown as red contours. <br />
(d) The magnetic field via the NLFFF algorithm, with blue lines<br />
showing saturated loops from (c) and white lines others.<br />
(e) AIA 1600&Aring; image at 01:46:06.710 UT. <br />
The red and green contours are RHESSI<br />
data at 15-25 and 30-50 keV respectively, with blue showing the NoRH<br />
17GHz data. <br />
(f) Punch diagram of microwave loop and hard X-ray loop.<br />
The green and orange regions represent the footpoints of the loop<br />
radiating hard X-rays and microwaves, respectively.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
Figure 2 shows the slit along the coronal loop<br />
interconnecting Points A and D and time variation of the brightness<br />
temperature at 17 GHz along the slit. Comparing with <br />
Figure 1 (c) and (d), we conclude that Points A and D<br />
are the footpoints of the same coronal loop shown as blue lines in<br />
Figure 1 (d).<br />
<br />
[[File:459f2.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
Analysis results for NoRH 17 GHz. <br />
(a) The purple line denotes<br />
the slit along the apparent microwave propagation. <br />
(b) The time<br />
variation of the brightness temperature at each point along the<br />
slit. The base time of Figure 3(b) is 01:45:54.084 UT (t=0). <br />
The dotted line may show a high speed microwave propagation from Point<br />
A to Point B as discussed in Ref. [2]. <br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Periodic enhancement of the microwave radiation at the footpoints ==<br />
<br />
The right panels in Figure 3 show cyclical brightenings<br />
observed at both footpoints (Points A and D). <br />
The peak times were 4.0 s (1A) and 6.1 s (2A) at Point A.<br />
For Point D, the peak times were 4.6 s (1D) and 6.7 s (2D). <br />
We suggest that the injection of accelerated electrons occurred somewhere <br />
in this loop.<br />
<br />
Using the information on the coronal magnetic field of the loop in<br />
the NLFFF model and some assumptions, we conclude that this periodic<br />
enhancement may be caused due to the bouncing motion of the accelerated<br />
electrons at the footpoints.<br />
<br />
[[File:459f3.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 3:</b> <i><br />
For the all panels, time starts at 01:45:54.084 UT. <br />
The left five panels show the time variation of<br />
brightness temperature and the time variation of hard X-ray photon<br />
counts detected by the Fermi/GBM sun-directed detector in the energy<br />
range from 49.0 keV to 101.4 keV. The right four panels show the<br />
Brightness Temperature Difference (BTD) from the Point A to Point<br />
D in (Ref. [2]).<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusions ==<br />
<br />
We discuss the possibility for explaining the enhancement of the<br />
microwave radiation at the footpoints after considering the pitch<br />
angle of the electrons and the size of the loss cone at the footpoints.<br />
This analysis improves upon that of Ref. [1] owing<br />
to the availability of SDO observations and the use of an NLFFF model. <br />
It is likely that the bouncing motion of the accelerated electrons <br />
can explain this periodic enhancement. <br />
Please see Ref. [2] for full detail.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ApJ...576L..87Y "Microwave observa- tions of the rapid propagation of nonthermal sources in a solar flare by the nobeyama radioheliograph"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ApJ...955L..39M "Characteristics of the accelerated electrons moving along the loop derived from cyclical microwave brightenings at the footpoints"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Impact_of_nanoflare_heating_in_the_lower_solar_atmosphereImpact of nanoflare heating in the lower solar atmosphere2023-11-01T12:03:47Z<p>Hhudson: Created page with "{{Infobox Nugget |name = Nugget |title = Impact of nanoflare heating in the lower solar atmosphere |number = 458 |first_author = Helle BAKKE |publish_date = October 30, 2023 |n..."</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Impact of nanoflare heating in the lower solar atmosphere<br />
|number = 458<br />
|first_author = Helle BAKKE<br />
|publish_date = October 30, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::457]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
The [https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/sun-corona/en/ solar corona]<br />
has been continuously studied through observations and<br />
numerical models due its unexpectedly high temperatures. <br />
Understanding the<br />
mechanisms responsible for heating the solar atmosphere from a few<br />
thousand Kelvin in the photosphere to millions of degrees in the<br />
corona has proved to be a difficult task. <br />
It is generally accepted<br />
that the corona is heated by processes related to the solar magnetic<br />
field, and one of the leading candidates to explain coronal heating<br />
is called the "nanoflare" theory (Ref. [1], the original<br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Parker Parker] conjecture). <br />
Nanoflares are small-scale heating<br />
events associated with magnetic reconnection, and this heating<br />
mechanism is based on the idea that nanoflares occur frequently<br />
in the corona and heat it consistently. <br />
<br />
Unfortunately, this theory has been difficult to prove because the<br />
energy released from nanoflares could well lie are below the detection<br />
threshold of current instrumentation and nanoflares have not been<br />
observed directly yet.<br />
Furthermore, in large numbers the individual events may be so abundant<br />
that their effects merge together into a featureless continuum.<br />
We may search more fruitfully via indirect observations.<br />
<br />
== Flare mechanics ==<br />
<br />
Flares are brightenings associated with magnetic reconnection in<br />
the solar atmosphere. <br />
As field lines reconnect, magnetic energy is<br />
converted into kinetic energy and heat, and the released energy is<br />
transported through the atmosphere by either thermal conduction or<br />
electrons accelerated to non-thermal energies during the reconnection<br />
event. <br />
The non-thermal electrons carry energy as they travel along<br />
the magnetic field, which they eventually lose through Coulomb<br />
collisions with the ambient plasma. <br />
Figure 1 shows an example of<br />
an idealised flare, where reconnection happens at the top of a<br />
coronal loop. <br />
Flaring events where larger brightenings are produced<br />
usually emit X-ray radiation, however not all reconnection events<br />
are energetic enough to be detected through X-ray observations (i.e.<br />
with RHESSI or <br />
[https://www.nustar.caltech.edu NuSTAR]). <br />
Accordingly there is only limited knowledge about the presence and <br />
properties of nanoflares in the solar atmosphere.<br />
<br />
[[File:458f1.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Standard model of a solar flare where reconnection happens at the<br />
top of a coronal loop. As the magnetic field lines reconnect,<br />
electrons are accelerated to non-thermal energies. <br />
They travel along the loop towards the footpoints and impact with the ambient<br />
plasma through <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb_collision Coloumb collisions],<br />
emitting hard X-rays in the process. <br />
Hot plasma fills the flaring loops via ablation (" evaporation"),<br />
and soft X-rays are emitted as a result of particles interacting<br />
within the high-temperature plasma. <br />
This figure is adapted from similar <br />
[https://www.astro.gla.ac.uk/cartoons/ flare cartoons] in the literature.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Numerical models ==<br />
<br />
We have explored the role of nanoflares in the solar atmosphere by<br />
utilising numerical simulations to investigate the atmospheric<br />
response to small-scale heating events. <br />
Instead of focusing on the<br />
actual nanoflare event, we have explored the impact of non-thermal<br />
electrons in the lower atmosphere by probing the signatures in the<br />
spectral lines forming at the sites where the electrons deposit<br />
their energy. <br />
We have studied the effects of non-thermal electrons<br />
in synthetic chromospheric and transition region spectra both from 1D <br />
[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/List-of-RADYN-Simulations-Used_tbl1_326566729 RADYN] <br />
flare simulations and the more realistic 3D MHD <br />
[https://www.mn.uio.no/rocs/english/research-themes/simulations.html Bifrost]<br />
simulation. <br />
Signatures in the synthetic spectra can give an indication<br />
of what to look for in observations. <br />
The inclusion, for example, of the <br />
[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095919178 Ca II H and K] lines to the diagnostics gives potential for <br />
observing small-scale<br />
heating events with ground-based telescopes (such as <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Solar_Telescope SST]), allowing<br />
for higher spatial resolution compared to millimetre and EUV<br />
observations. <br />
A comparison of an observed small-scale coronal heating<br />
event to a 1D RADYN nanoflare simulation is seen in Figure 2. <br />
The RADYN flare time is much shorter than the observed event, hence the<br />
flare time cannot be directly compared. <br />
Instead, we compared the shapes and features of the observed and <br />
synthetic lines. <br />
Even though<br />
RADYN is not able to reproduce the single-peaked Ca II K observed<br />
profile, the redshift of the observed lines at locations (a) and<br />
(b) is comparable to that of the simulation. <br />
Additionally, the<br />
synthetic H&alpha; profile is very similar to the observed profile<br />
at location (b), both in shape and temporal evolution. <br />
The comparison<br />
of the observed event to the results of our numerical models generally<br />
suggests that there is a presence of non-thermal electrons in the<br />
flaring loops.<br />
<br />
[[File:458f2.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
Spectral evolution of the Ca II K and H&alpha; emission lines <br />
from a RADYN nanoflare simulation, and from an SST observation of a <br />
small coronal heating event. <br />
The top panels show intensity maps of the observed Ca II K line core <br />
at the peak of the flare, where the orange crosses<br />
represent three different locations at which the spectra are taken.<br />
The bottom panels show the spectral evolution of the lines from the<br />
simulation and observation, where the overplotted line profiles are<br />
indicated at a specific time during the flare (marked along the<br />
Y-axis). <br />
The time step for the RADYN simulation is chosen at 7 s, while the time <br />
step for the observation is chosen at 6.8 min<br />
which is the same time as the intensity maps in the top panels are<br />
shown. <br />
We note that the duration of the simulated flare is much<br />
shorter than that of the observed flare, as can be seen from the<br />
Y-axis in the bottom panels.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
We have analysed signatures arising from non-thermal electrons in<br />
a variety of numerical models, and compared the results with an<br />
observed small-scale heating event. Since direct signatures of<br />
nanoflares are difficult to determine, analysis of synthetic spectra<br />
from numerical models gives us the opportunity to provide guidance<br />
to future observations. By including lines in the visible to the<br />
analysis, we are able to expand the list of possible diagnostics<br />
for the presence and properties of nanoflares. The combination of<br />
numerical models and observations is beneficial in the continued<br />
study of nanoflares; both their impact on the lower atmosphere, and<br />
their role in heating the upper atmosphere.<br />
<br />
This Nugget has been based on Refs. [2-4], where there is much further<br />
information.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988ApJ...330..474P "Nanoflares and the solar X-ray corona"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022A%26A...659A.186B "Chromospheric emission from nanoflare heating in RADYN simulations"]<br />
<br />
[3] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023A%26A...675A.103B "Accelerated particle beams in a 3D simulation of the quiet Sun. Lower atmospheric diagnostics"]<br />
<br />
[4] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ApJ...956...85T "High-resolution Observations of the Low Atmospheric Response to Small Coronal Heating Events in an Active Region Core"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Precise_timing_of_flare_footpoint_sources_from_mid-infrared_observationsPrecise timing of flare footpoint sources from mid-infrared observations2023-10-31T11:18:05Z<p>Hhudson: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Precise timing of flare footpoint sources from mid-infrared observations<br />
|number = 457<br />
|first_author = Paulo SIM&Otilde;ES et al.<br />
|publish_date = October 23, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = Nanoflares <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::456]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
The mid-infrared wavelengths of the solar spectrum (the 30 THz or<br />
10 &mu; band) represent a new frontier, with only the skimpiest<br />
spectroscopic or imaging data yet available for research on solar<br />
flares. <br />
We remember<br />
[https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Pierre_Kaufmann Pierre Kaufmann] here for his inspirational work in this area.<br />
Good ground-based observations in the mid-IR require special atmospheric <br />
conditions (low amounts of precipitable water vapor), plus special kinds<br />
of detector.<br />
Good image resolution also requires a big telescope because of diffraction.<br />
These requirements all came together at the iconic McMath-Pierce telescope at<br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMath–Pierce_solar_telescope Kitt Peak]<br />
for the flare SOL2014-09-24T17:50 (C7.0), as described in Ref. [1].<br />
<br />
<br />
Surprisingly, the mid-IR directly impacts our understanding of flare <br />
hard X-ray emissions, an essential aspect of the energy release<br />
This Nugget explains the connection here.<br />
For reference, the mid-IR in our observations means wavelengths 10x those of visible light, and<br />
so the radiation processes may be quite different.<br />
<br />
== Footpoint emissions ==<br />
<br />
The observations of the 2014 flare revealed two footpoints, a characteristic<br />
of hard X-ray observations.<br />
Singularly bright double-footpoint emissions also appear in white light,<br />
following the pattern set in 1859 by the <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrington_Event Carrington event].<br />
That this pattern should appear so clearly in the mid-IR was somewhat<br />
unexpected, but this offered a very valuable asset: time resolution.<br />
Figure 1 shows the footpoint character of the mid-IR in SOL2014-09-24.<br />
<br />
[[File:457f1.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
The broadband character of flare footpoint sources: from left to right, two mid-IR continuum bands, <br />
[https://aia.lmsal.com AIA] <br />
1700&Aring;, slightly saturated, and RHESSI hard X-ray contours at 50-70 keV <br />
with AIA 335&Aring; as the base image.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
The IR observations have high cadence, sampled in this event at 1 s intervals.<br />
This is required for mid-IR imaging because the warm telescope creates a very<br />
high background level at these long wavelengths.<br />
<br />
== Footpoint timing ==<br />
<br />
We take advantage of this high time resolution to ask the important question: <br />
How well synchronized are the twin footpoints?<br />
This characteristic of "conjugacy" has immediate implications for energy <br />
transport, and up until now the best knowledge had come from Ref. [2],<br />
exploiting <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohkoh <i>Yohkoh</i>]<br />
hard X-ray imaging.<br />
This work, across multiple flares, established conjugacy to a fraction of a<br />
second, limited both by the time resolution of data sampling and by the <br />
image processing needed to deconvolve the images; we note that RHESSI data<br />
have similar limitations.<br />
<br />
The mid-IR timing results for the longer-wavelength band, centered at 8.2&mu;,<br />
are here in Figure~2.<br />
They show the S footpoint to lead the N footpoint by 0.754&plusmn;0.066 s.<br />
<br />
[[File:457f2.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
The time variability of N and S footpoint sources at 8.2&mu;, with a <br />
correlation plot in the upper-right inset.<br />
The result is a lag of -0.754&plusmn;0.066 s.<br />
The 8.2&mu; band confirms this but with poorer SNR.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
The quantitative results disagree with exact conjugacy and thus exhibit<br />
some tension with the earlier HXR results, but the emission mechanisms <br />
and other characteristics of the observations make this tension somewhat<br />
model-dependent.<br />
Among these, for example (and this applies to the HXR observations as well)<br />
is that the observations do not resolve the actual sources, which we <br />
suspect to have very fine spatial scales.<br />
This means that we cannot really be sure about strict magnetic conjugacy.<br />
In any case Ref. [1] deals with these issues comprehensively.<br />
<br />
== Conclusions ==<br />
<br />
Double-footpoint flare structure appears very cleanly in the mid IR, and<br />
in the analysis of a single flare we have taken advantage of the high <br />
time resolution to test for conjugacy, important in the context of the<br />
theory of flare energy transport.<br />
The finding favors a relatively slow mechanism, as opposed to transport<br />
by beamed semi-relativistic electrons.<br />
This is less important (it's only one flare!) than the general conclusion<br />
that mid-IR observations are quite useful and should be pursued as energetically<br />
as possible.<br />
We note that ground-based observations at still longer wavelengths (the 20&mu; band)<br />
should also be possible.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ApJ...819L..30P/ "Spectral and Imaging Observations of a White-light Solar Flare in the Mid-infrared"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996AdSpR..17d..67S "Characteristics of hard X-ray double sources in impulsive solar flares"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/The_Greatest_GOES_FlaresThe Greatest GOES Flares2023-09-28T17:58:33Z<p>Hhudson: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = The Greatest GOES Flares <br />
|number = 456<br />
|first_author = Hugh HUDSON <br />
|second_author = Ed CLIVER <br />
|publish_date = September 25, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::455]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
<br />
Solar flares appear as isolated bursts of soft X-rays, and powerful ones are distinctly less<br />
frequent than weaker ones. <br />
In this property they share the power-law occurrence character of<br />
earthquakes and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_law many other] natural<br />
(and man-made) phenomena.<br />
In the case of the Sun, this power law is so "flat" that, if extrapolated up into the domain of<br />
infrequent but powerful events, the total energy required appears to be infinite.<br />
This cannot be! <br />
See an [https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Chree_Analysis_for_Flares earlier Nugget] <br />
on this issue.<br />
Accordingly it was reassuring when Ref. [1] surveyed solar radio bursts and suggested an upper<br />
limit to the power law, which otherwise is scale-free.<br />
<br />
== The GOES soft X-rays ==<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s there have been systematic observations of the solar soft X-ray flux, which varies <br />
continuously and shows flare activity very well.<br />
Indeed, estimates suggest that a solar flare devotes several percent of its total energy release <br />
in just the standard GOES 1-8 &Aring; spectral band.<br />
Other estimates suggest that a similar fraction goes into MeV "solar cosmic rays", meaning that<br />
the flare process is wildly non-thermal in its nature.<br />
<br />
Do the soft X-ray bursts, a relatively close proxy for total flare energy, truly follow the flat<br />
power law that we're familiar with?<br />
The answer to this question is hidden in a dozen GOES events that "saturated" their X-ray flux<br />
estimations.<br />
In Ref. [2] we have now analyzed these events systematically, as shown for test examples in <br />
Figure 1. <br />
We applied the same techniques to the 12 saturated events in the database and believe that <br />
the estimates of their peak fluxes thus derived have uncertainties well within the absolute<br />
calibrations of the GOES measurements.<br />
<br />
[[File:456f1.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Testing de-saturation techniques: this illustrates a simple linear extrapolation towards a peak<br />
value, using X10-class events with artificial truncation. <br />
We validated our two techniques with good agreement on test cases, and with each other on the<br />
real saturated events.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
We can now present a complete occurrence distribution function (Figure 2), based on our new <br />
estimates of peak soft X-ray fluxes interpreted as equivalent GOES classes.<br />
This is the downward cumulative distribution function, showing a deviation from a simple<br />
power law for the greatest events, now including the 12 saturated events at their estimated<br />
magnitudes.<br />
Our analysis also involves an algorithmic background subtraction for each event, at the full<br />
time resolution of the data.<br />
The peak fluxes estimated this way cannot be exactly compared with the NOAA classes,<br />
which are based on 1-minute averaging and no background corrections, but for the<br />
greatest events there is usually little difference.<br />
The red line shows a fit to an assumed linear part of the distribution function, based on the <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_likelihood_estimation maximum-likelihood]<br />
algorithm.<br />
The power law has an index of -2.0, within uncertainties, consistent with other studies of this database.<br />
We chose the M1-X3 range here to avoid overlapping small events.<br />
Note that the SXR peak fluxes include NOAA’s recently established correction factor (1.43) to adjust the <br />
GOES-1 through GOES-15 data covering 1975-2016.<br />
<br />
[[File:456f3.png|400px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
Downward cumulative distribution function for GOES peak fluxes, as reinterpreted in Ref. [2].<br />
The red line shows a least-squares fit to the range M1-X3, extrapolated towards the "superflare"<br />
neighborhood.<br />
Note that these magnitude estimates include the 12 saturated events now consistently<br />
corrected for saturation.<br />
</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusions ==<br />
<br />
The turn-over we see, if it scales with total event energy or other manifestations, suggests that<br />
extreme events may be less probable than previously thought.<br />
In particular the remarkable tree-ring radioisotope events (Ref. [2]) seem less consistent with<br />
our current understanding of the physics of solar flares.<br />
This is also an interesting development for "superflares" on other stars.<br />
However our understanding of the physics is sufficiently weak that eventually a common theoretical<br />
basis for solar flare, solar extreme events, and stellar superflares may develop. <br />
<br />
== Acknowledgements == <br />
<br />
The authors of Ref. [2] and this Nugget include Stephen WHITE, Janet MACHOL, Courtney PECK, Kim TOLBERT, Rodney VIERECK, and Dominic ZARRO.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ApJ...570..423N "The Peak Flux Distribution of Solar Radio Bursts"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.11457 "The greatest solar soft X-ray flares"]<br />
<br />
[3] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.486..240M "A signature of cosmic-ray increase in AD 774-775 from tree rings in Japan"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Introducing_SunSketcherIntroducing SunSketcher2023-09-16T16:58:34Z<p>Hhudson: 455 final</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Introducing SunSketcher <br />
|number = 455<br />
|first_author = Hugh HUDSON <br />
|second_author = Gordon EMSLIE<br />
|publish_date = September 11, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::454]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
<br />
Solar eclipses fascinate us with their drama and beauty, and their scientific credentials<br />
go way back before the word "scientific" actually existed.<br />
In this modern space age, actual observations from the surface of the Earth no longer<br />
have so much cutting-edge research impact, but in this Nugget we introduce the<br />
[https://SunSketcher.org SunSketcher] project.<br />
SunSketcher takes advantage of modern technology and crowdsourced help to tackle a<br />
basic astronomical question: How round is the Sun?<br />
We discussed the history of this question in an <br />
[https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/History_of_Solar_Oblateness earlier Nugget].<br />
<br />
The answer is of course "very round", but there are several mechanisms that will distort<br />
the solar surface. <br />
Since solar gravity is so strong - about 28x the Earth's - we don't expect major<br />
distortions.<br />
Solar rotation could make the sun somewhat <br />
[https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=oblate+spheroid&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 oblate] <br />
but how much would depend upon the interior flows.<br />
There is no guarantee that a big ball of incandescent magnetized gas would want to rotate<br />
in any uniform way.<br />
The implications of any deviations of the solar surface from its apparently immaculate sphere are profound,<br />
touching not just on the complicated internal structure of our nearest star, but also on relativity (Ref. [1]).<br />
This is indeed a RHESSI topic, since Ref. [2] took advantage of RHESSI's steady rotation to obtain <br />
the currently best measurement of the solar oblateness - to date - from its solar aspect sensors.<br />
<br />
== How SunSketcher works ==<br />
<br />
The project makes use of smartphones (huge numbers of them, if possible) each one precisely<br />
tagged in space and in time by [https://www.gps.gov GPS].<br />
Combining this with the precise altimetry of the Moon, recorded in the<br />
[https://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/lola/index.html LOLA] database we can watch<br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baily's_beads Baily's beads] blink on and <br />
off during an eclipse, and do this so redundantly that<br />
we can get a full map of the circumference of the Sun, and even watch it change<br />
with time.<br />
Figure 1 shows a wonderful set of images, obtained at <br />
[https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/teles-instr/lasilla/ ESO La Silla] <br />
in the <br />
[http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/solar_eclipses/TSE_2019_GoogleMapFull.html 2019 total eclipse]<br />
by P. Hor&aacute;lek.<br />
<br />
The tiniest last and first Baily's Beads pinpoint a lunar valley, and from different<br />
perspectives within and along the track of the eclipse we can thus measure the whole arc of<br />
the solar disk.<br />
<br />
[[File:455f1.png|600px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Some beautiful snapshots of the time development of Baily's Beads in the 2019 total<br />
eclipse, seen from the European Southern Observatory in Chile by P. Hor&aacute;lek.<br />
</i><br />
]]<br />
<br />
SunSketcher provides a free smartphone app.<br />
In addition to providing full information about eclipses and safety, the app<br />
will have a single button-push to enable it obtain a sequence of observations,<br />
and then automatically upload them to a repository.<br />
The observer just has to prop the phone up to face the Sun squarely at about<br />
the proper angle (64 degrees at Dallas, for example, and 49 degrees for<br />
Cleveland). <br />
<br />
We are "beta-testing" the <br />
[https://SunSketcher.org Sunsketcher app] at the forthcoming<br />
[http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/solar_eclipses/ASE_2023_GoogleMapFull.html annular eclipse] in October 2023.<br />
<br />
== Data Analysis ==<br />
<br />
In a sense this is unknown territory, since nobody has attempted previously <br />
to make observations with this degree of precision.<br />
One way to analyze the data will be to create time-series of brightness at a given <br />
azimuth on the limb. <br />
With thousands of image sequences, the data will allow a very overdetermined epoch of the <br />
first or last moment of a Bead's visibility.<br />
<br />
We expect that a more comprehensive analysis will involve a massive forward-method modeling, whereby<br />
we create a model Sun that is parametrized to describe oblateness, and may have other features<br />
(such as sunspot groups) that would create signal as well.<br />
Then there would then be a model-fitting procedure to evaluate those parameters.<br />
But since this is exploratory, we are open for ideas and will certainly make<br />
our data available for public access.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974ApJS...27..131D "The Oblateness of the Sun"]<br />
<br />
[2] [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Sci...322..560F "A Large Excess in Apparent Solar Oblateness Due to Surface Magnetism"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/TeV_Gamma_rays_from_the_Quiescent_SunTeV Gamma rays from the Quiescent Sun2023-09-07T14:09:07Z<p>Hhudson: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = TeV Gamma rays from the Quiescent Sun<br />
|number = 454<br />
|first_author = Mehr Un NISA <br />
|second_author = John BEACOM <br />
|publish_date = August 21, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::453]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
<br />
The Sun should not be a cosmic gamma-ray source, but it is.<br />
This is due partly to <br />
[https://home.web.cern.ch/science/physics/cosmic-rays-particles-outer-space Galactic cosmic rays] <br />
producing [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo "albedo"]<br />
radiation at high energies.<br />
The cosmic rays can have extremely high energies, far above the TeV discussed<br />
here.<br />
Solar flares also accelerate high-energy particles and "solar cosmic rays" <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energetic_particles SEPs] <br />
but these are generally at lower energies - "only" a few GeV at most.<br />
For reference the solar optical radiation has an effective temperature <br />
corresponding to one eV, and even its hot corona to only about 100 eV.<br />
<br />
Gamma rays above 1 GeV have been a puzzling feature of the solar<br />
disk since they were first measured by <br />
[https://glast.sites.stanford.edu Fermi-LAT]<br />
during solar cycle 24 [1]. <br />
Several followup analyses of the data revealed a<br />
hard spectrum of gamma rays with the flux exceeding theoretical<br />
expectations by up to a factor of 7 [2]. <br />
The signal also showed an<br />
anticorrelation with solar activity hinting towards a galactic<br />
[https://neutronm.bartol.udel.edu/catch/cr3.html cosmic-ray origin]<br />
of the gamma-ray excess. <br />
Photons with energies up to 200 GeV were detected, motivating a search at <br />
even higher energies to understand if the emission continued or cut off.<br />
<br />
== HAWC Observations ==<br />
<br />
The High Altitude Water Cherenkov <br />
([https://www.hawc-observatory.org HAWC]) Observatory located in<br />
Mexico is capable of detecting gamma (and cosmic) rays above a few<br />
hundred GeV upto 100s of TeV, and continuously surveys the Northern<br />
sky in search of cosmic-ray accelerators in the galaxy and beyond.<br />
It has also been taking data from the Sun since beginning operations<br />
in 2015. <br />
We have analyzed six years of archival data between 2015 and<br />
2021, covering both active and quiet periods of the solar cycle.<br />
The analysis uses a data-driven approach to separate the very <br />
interesting [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron hadronic]<br />
cosmic-ray shadow of the Sun (see<br />
[https://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/The_Cosmic-Ray_Shadow_and_Coronal_Magnetism Nugget No. 351])<br />
from the disk (Figure 1).<br />
<br />
[[File:454f1.png|350px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Significance map centered at the Sun in 6 years of HAWC data.<br />
</i><br />
]]<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
We find a steeply falling excess of gamma rays from the disk with<br />
energies between 500 GeV and 2.6 TeV [3]. <br />
The image morphology of the signal is best described as a disk of radius <br />
0.24 solar radii. <br />
We split the data into two halves: years 2014-2017 corresponding to an <br />
active part of the <br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cycle solar cycle], and 2018-2020 <br />
which coincided with the last solar minimum. <br />
The gamma-ray flux shows a clear time-dependence with most<br />
of the signal coming during the solar minimum. <br />
The HAWC data combined<br />
with previous Fermi-LAT measurements point towards an energy cutoff<br />
in the spectrum around 400 GeV (Figure 2), which should be an<br />
important clue for theorists trying to model cosmic-ray interactions<br />
in the solar atmosphere.<br />
<br />
[[File:454f2.png|500px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
The GeV-TeV gamma-ray spectrum of the Sun as observed by Fermi-LAT and HAWC.<br />
</i><br />
]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[1] [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJ...734..116A "Fermi Large Area Telescope Observations of Two Gamma-Ray Emission Components from the Quiescent Sun"]<br />
<br />
[2] [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PhRvD..94b3004N "First Observation of Time Variation in the Solar-Disk Gamma-Ray Flux with Fermi"]<br />
<br />
[3] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023PhRvL.131e1201A "Discovery of Gamma rays from the Quiescent Sun with HAWC"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/Temporal_and_Spatial_Characteristics_of_Hard_X-Ray_Sources_in_Flare_Model_with_Vertical_Current_SheetTemporal and Spatial Characteristics of Hard X-Ray Sources in Flare Model with Vertical Current Sheet2023-08-28T15:28:07Z<p>Hhudson: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Nugget<br />
|name = Nugget<br />
|title = Temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Hard X-Ray Sources in Flare Model with Vertical Current Sheet<br />
|number = 453<br />
|first_author = Alexander N. SHABALIN,<br />
|second_author = Evgeniia P. OVCHINNIKOVA, and Yuri E. CHARIKOV <br />
|publish_date = August 7, 2023<br />
|next_nugget = TBD <br />
|previous_nugget = {{#ask: [[Category:Nugget]] [[RHESSI Nugget Index::452]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
<br />
In the standard [http://solar.physics.montana.edu/magara/Research/Topics/cshkp.html "CSHKP" flare model],<br />
the primary acceleration of charged particles occurs in<br />
the cusp and current sheet regions above the soft X-ray loops. <br />
The ejection of nearly collisionless plasma from the magnetic reconnection<br />
region is accompanied by a fast transformation of magnetic loops<br />
initially extended in the direction of the current sheet to a<br />
configuration close to that of a dipole. <br />
The magnetic loops that relax in this manner undergo longitudinal and transverse <br />
contraction, which leads to the further acceleration of electrons through <br />
[https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/betatron betatron]<br />
and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermi Fermi]<br />
first-order acceleration. <br />
We have considired such dynamic loops following Ref. [1]. <br />
Magnetic-field dynamics during the collapse result<br />
in spatial and temporal features of hard X-ray (HXR) sources in<br />
flares. <br />
This Nugget gives an overview of the validation of our "CollTr"<br />
model of this (Ref. [2]),<br />
using RHESSI HXR data and the features of HXR evolution in coronal<br />
plasma below the vertical current sheet.<br />
Such manifestations may include a decrease or constancy in the HXR<br />
source height, a negative correlation between the area of the coronal<br />
source and the HXR flux, and features in the energy spectra and<br />
time delay (TD) spectra, particularly at the initial stage of flare<br />
development.<br />
<br />
== Observation ==<br />
<br />
We analyzed changes in the height of the coronal HXR source for<br />
flares SOL2013-05-13T01:50 and SOL2013-05-13T15:51 (Figure 1, middle<br />
panels). <br />
Analysis of the RHESSI data revealed the downward motion<br />
of the HXR sources and the separation of the sources of different<br />
energies by height. <br />
In the early stages of the flares, a negative<br />
correlation was found between the HXR source area in the corona and<br />
HXR flux.<br />
<br />
[[File:453f1.png|700px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 1:</b> <i><br />
Normalized hard X-ray (HXR) time profiles from RHESSI, the HXR source height, <br />
and the projected area of the HXR sources for (a) SOL2013-05-13T01:50, and<br />
(b) SOL2013-05-13T15:51. <br />
The gray vertical stripes mark the intervals with a change in the<br />
attenuator state, excluded from the study.<br />
</i><br />
]]<br />
<br />
Figure 2 shows the time-delay (TD) spectra obtained for the HXR of the<br />
SOL2013-05-13T15:51 event. <br />
This analysis basically uses cross-correlation in time in spectral bins,<br />
and can be carried out for any image region and time domain selected.<br />
We calculated the TD spectra for the looptop and footpoints of the <br />
flare arcade. <br />
The colored rectangles<br />
in Figure 2 mark the phases of the rise and decay of the HXR for<br />
which the TD spectra were calculated. <br />
The shaded white time interval (15:59:04--15:59:44) was excluded from the <br />
analysis because of potentially inaccurate flux values. <br />
Windows 1 and 3 correspond to the rising phases of the HXR flux. <br />
During these time intervals, the TD spectra at the footpoints exhibit an <br />
increasing trend in the spectral profiles. <br />
At the looptop, the TD spectrum exhibited a<br />
growth shape (window 1, black curve) and complex shape (window 3,<br />
black curve). <br />
During the decay phases (windows 2 and 4), the TD<br />
spectral profiles decreased at the looptop and at both footpoints.<br />
<br />
[[File:453f2.png|650px|thumb|center|<b>Figure 2:</b> <i><br />
RHESSI light curves in the 28.0-42.8 keV channel for HXR sources<br />
at the looptop and both footpoints of the flare and time-delay (TD) spectra in<br />
time windows 1-4 for the SOL2013-05-13T15:51 event. <br />
</i><br />
]]<br />
<br />
== Modeling ==<br />
<br />
To model the properties of the HXR mentioned above, we numerically<br />
solved the time-dependent relativistic kinetic equation for nonthermal<br />
electrons (see Equation (1) in Ref. [2]). <br />
We assumed that the initial<br />
acceleration within the current sheet defines the injected electron<br />
parameters. <br />
In the multitude of relaxing magnetic loops, we modeled<br />
one characterized by the parameters of the ensemble-averaged loops.<br />
Consequently, we modeled magnetic loop relaxation accompanied by<br />
the injection of primary accelerated electrons in the looptop region.<br />
In the event SOL2013-05-13T15:51, at the footpoints during the rise<br />
of the HXR flux (windows 1 and 3, Figure 2), increasing TD spectra<br />
were obtained, which contradicts the electron propagation model<br />
with time-independent distributions of plasma density and magnetic<br />
field along the loop (DMTI model). <br />
At the same time, in the CollTr model, the TD spectra<br />
at the footpoints exhibited growth. <br />
This contradiction is attributed<br />
to a combination of factors: a high initial B<sub>max</sub>/B<sub>min</sub><br />
during the onset of magnetic loop relaxation in the CollTr model,<br />
additional electron acceleration during propagation in the loop,<br />
and an increase in plasma density at the looptop. <br />
The modeling<br />
revealed that betatron acceleration has a dominant influence on the<br />
formation of growing TD spectra at footpoints. <br />
Because betatron<br />
acceleration is significant only during the growth phase of the HXR<br />
flux, the transition from increasing TD spectra at the footpoints<br />
to decreasing patterns in windows 2 and 4 in Figure 2 can also be<br />
explained. <br />
That is, during the increase in the HXR flux, growing<br />
TD spectra are formed at the footpoints owing to the betatron<br />
acceleration of the electrons. <br />
Subsequently, during the decay of<br />
the HXR flux, when the betatron acceleration was no longer effective<br />
and the B<sub>max</sub>/B<sub>min</sub> ratio was not substantial <br />
(approximately 8), the TD spectra transformed to a decreasing pattern, as <br />
anticipated by the DMTI model of electron propagation with a stationary <br />
magnetic field.<br />
<br />
== Conclusions ==<br />
<br />
Numerical simulations of accelerated electron kinetics and the<br />
associated HXR emission in the CollTr model are consistent with the<br />
observed HXR data for flares SOL2013-05-13T01:50 and SOL2013-05-13T15:51.<br />
First, the separation of HXR sources of different energies by height<br />
occurs naturally during magnetic field relaxation (collapse) in a<br />
model with a vertical current sheet in the corona. <br />
Second, there<br />
was a negative correlation between the area of the HXR sources in<br />
the corona and HXR flux for both flares examined in this study.<br />
Third, there were particular characteristics of the TD spectra in<br />
the investigated flares, specifically the decreasing TD spectra in<br />
the coronal source and the increasing TD spectra in the footpoints<br />
of the SOL2013-05-13T15:51 event. <br />
We explain these characteristics<br />
using numerical simulations conducted within the CollTr model<br />
framework. <br />
In addition, our modeling of the HXR spectral index<br />
evolution suggests that soft-hard-soft and soft-hard-harder patterns<br />
may not appear due to specific processes in the accelerator or the<br />
region of suprathermal electron propagation, but rather as a<br />
consequence of the superposition of HXR fluxes from various magnetic<br />
structures, which are at different stages in terms of accelerated<br />
electron accumulation and radiation.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997ApJ...485..859S "Collisionless Reconnection and High-Energy Particle Acceleration in Solar Flares"]<br />
<br />
[2] [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023ApJ...954...58S "Temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Hard X-Ray Sources in a Flare Model with a Vertical Current Sheet"]</div>Hhudsonhttps://sprg.ssl.berkeley.edu/~tohban/wiki/index.php/(Premium_Cheats)_Coin_Master_Unlimited_Spins_Coins_Generator_No_Jailbreak_or_Root_No_Human_Verification(Premium Cheats) Coin Master Unlimited Spins Coins Generator No Jailbreak or Root No Human Verification2023-08-12T16:24:49Z<p>Nnitta: Created page with "Introducing the Coin Master Generator: Unlock Unlimited Spins and Coins!Are you tired of constantly running out of spins and coins in the popular mobile game Coin Master? Do you ..."</p>
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<div>Title: Unlock Unlimited Pokecoins with the Pokemon Go Generator Introduction:<br />
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